A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. A maternity test can also be carried out but this is much less common, because except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is.

Older methods of paternity testing have included ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using HLA antigens. For the most part however, DNA has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.

The DNA of an individual is almost exactly the same in each and every somatic cell. >Sexual reproduction brings the DNA of both parents together randomly to create a unique combination of genetic material in a new cell, so the genetic material of an individual is derived from the genetic material of their parents. This genetic material is known as the nuclear genome of the individual, because it is found in the nucleus.

Comparing the DNA sequence of an individual to that of another individual can show if one of them was derived from the other or not. Specific sequences are usually looked at to see if they were copied verbatim from one of the individuals genome to the other. If that was the case, then this proves that the genetic material of one individual was derived from that of the other (i.e.: one is the parent of the other). Besides the nuclear DNA in the nucleus, the mitochondria in the cells also have their own genetic material termed the mitochondrial genome. Mitochondrial DNA comes only from the mother, without any shuffling.

Proving a relationship based on comparison of the mitochondrial genome is much easier than that based on the nuclear genome. However, testing the mitochondrial genome can only prove if two individuals are related by common descent through maternal lines only from a common ancestor and is thus of limited value (for instance, it could not be used to test for paternity).

Non-paternity rates
Meta-analysis of a wide variety of genetic studies appears to show that the rates of non-paternity in the general population are on the order of 4% [1] to over 30%, depending on the social group involved. Many find these rates surprisingly high.

How is DNA Used in Paternity Testing?
Certain regions of human DNA show variations between people. At each of these regions a person possesses two genetic types (known as alleles), one inherited from each parent. By looking at a number of these variable regions in a person a DNA profile is produced. By comparing the DNA profiles of the mother and child it is possible to determine which half of the child’s DNA was inherited from its mother (maternal alleles). The other half must therefore have been inherited from the child’s biological father (paternal alleles). The alleged father’s profile is then examined to determine whether he has the DNA types in his profile that match the paternal alleles in the child. If the man’s DNA types do not match the child’s, he is excluded as the biological father. If the DNA types match, then he is not excluded as the father.

About the Author:
Smruti Ranjan Sarangi has authored many articles on a diversified topics like Technical, Management, and Humanity. For information on Paternity Testing and DNA Paternity Testing visit Testing Master

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Isn’t learning that a woman is pregnant with an unborn baby one of life’s most beautiful events? Pregnancy is a time when mom and dad share a marvelous task to bring their child into the world feeling appreciated and wanted. And this miracle starts even before conception begins.

Yes, before conception begins. Prior to the sperm cell and egg cell joining each other for a life long journey that commences in the mom’s womb. An infant’s right to life is born when parents start thinking about having a child.

A famous cellular biologist, Dr. Bruce Lipton, Ph.D, wrote an evolutionary volume, “The Biology of Belief.” In his book, Dr. Lipton contends that the parents’ love and intention before “the twinkle danced in mom’s eye” affect the well being of an unborn infant.

This is how. Researchers discovered a link between a fetus’s health and the support well being, and mood of its parents. After conception, a fetus develops and grows. The degree to which the baby develops is related to the attitudes of the parents. Positive loving attitudes - positive infant growth. Fearful, unhappy attitudes - sickly child.

An unborn baby senses the feelings, thoughts, and actions of its mother. Since a baby’s father can affect the baby’s mother through his actions, feelings and thoughts, the dad also affects how a baby develops. Scientists have shown how a baby absorb steroids like cortisol from its mother, when mom experiences high levels of fear and anxiety.

When stressful times occur, the stress hormones in the mother’s bloodstream pass right through the unborn infant. This has a negative change upon the developing body of the baby. Italian researchers observed a fetus jump inside its mother, when an argument between parents used harsh, loud words.

Every human being grows and develops the same way. An umbilical cord in the mother’s uterus connects the baby to its mom like a lifeline. Oxygen, blood, nutrients, vitamins and everything needed to grow and be healthy flow to the baby through that cord. The umbilical cord consists of three strands - two arteries and a vein, surrounded by Wharton’s jelly. Second by second, every minute, day after day for nine months, the line line of the umbilical cord connects mom and baby with health and life.

A pro life way for moms and dads to bring emotional and spiritual health to their baby is through the three strands of faith, hope and love. These virtues are a lifeline for the unborn baby’s healthy development. The three strands of hope, love and faith help parents relate to each other better.

Faith is the first strand of the spiritual life line. Mom and dad receive the gift of faith from God. Parents unwrap this gift when they believe and trust each other and that God is present to them and their unborn infant.

Dads and moms use the second strand — hope - when they persevere and endure the nine, long months of pregnancy. Parents envision and hope their child as healthy and growing up to contribute positively to life.

The third and most important strand is love. When the parents draw upon God’s love for them, they can love each other and pass their love to their child.

Pregnancy has its difficult moments: body pain, uncertainty, changes in moods and habits. Moms and dads can work through those times by being kind to each other, finding joy in the present moment, witnessing the miracle of new life forming within them and trusting that everything will turn out well.

Moms and dads deliver the three strands of virtue to their unborn baby through a spiritual umbilical cord. The right to life of the unborn infant is healthy in emotion, mind and body. The life line of three strands of faith, hope and love connect parents and child to God and each other.

About the author:
Married for more than 24 years, Dave Pipitone advocates the use of encouragement, kindness and love in lasting and meaningful relationships. To learn more about how to care for an unborn baby’s welfare, visit www.my3strands.com.

Sheryl’s comment:
I am spiritual but not religious so I do not necessarily agree with the God aspect of this article, but I could replace the word God with Mother Earth or higher power and it would provide the original impact without offending.

Needless to say, this article hit home for me because I was in a physically violent marriage when I became pregnant. My husband pretty much fell off the deep end when I became pregnant and while I am not psychic, lets just say that I would not be surprised at all if I had become another Lacy Peterson if I had stayed with him. Staying with him was not an option.

I now know that pregnancy is oddly enough an incentive for murder. Murder is the leading cause of death for pregnant women. Laci was not an anomaly. She just made the news. I just cant wrap my brain around what makes a man want to murder his own offspring and mate, but apparently it is part and parcel of an abusive, sociopathic personality.

Leaving my husband was, hands down, the most difficult thing I had ever done in my life. It is still difficult, years later. As dysfunctional as it sounds, I believed that loved him with my whole heart and like many battered women had lost everything to his manipulative tactics. My self esteem was in the toilet and I finally left him when I was three months pregnant from a city I adored, to hostile family members (not all of them) and had to move, penniless to the middle American suburbs that I had hoped I left forever.

Needless to say, I knew - almost instinctively - the importance of having a calm, peaceful, loving pregnancy. While growing inside me, my daughter had no clue that I was destitute or heartbroken. I tried to replace my heartache and stress with thoughts of love for her.

I just can’t imagine how different she would be today if she had been subjected to nine months of sleepless nights, screaming fights and physical abuse, not to mention how different her life would have been after she was born. Leaving that jackass was not only the best thing I have done for myself but the greatest gift I could have ever given my beautiful, innocent girl.

Domestic Violence Links and Resources - Where to seek help
National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-SAFE (7233)
www.866uswomen.org is the wonderful organization that saved me and my daughter from my husband

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